La lógica de los golpes “buenos” y “malos” de la Guerra Fría ya no aplica, pero las etiquetas y sus consecuencias persisten.
Por Max Fisher
La renuncia del presidente Evo Morales ha provocado un debate internacional sobre cómo calificar la turbulencia desatada en Bolivia: ¿es una rebelión o un golpe de Estado?
Algunas personas respaldan la versión de una rebelión del pueblo en contra de la tendencia del presidente hacia el autoritarismo. Otras dicen que fue una descarada intervención del Ejército.
Pese a que se desconoce gran parte de la historia, en ambas posturas existen muchas muestras a las que hacer referencia.
No obstante, según los académicos, la coexistencia de estas dos interpretaciones insinúan una verdad importante: la línea divisoria entre los golpes de Estado y las rebeliones pueden ser tenues o incluso inexistentes.
Con frecuencia, son una sola y lo mismo: los levantamientos masivos de la población junto con la deserción del Ejército que obligan a la renuncia o a la destitución del dirigente de un país.
Sin embargo, la superposición de estos términos a menudo conlleva connotaciones morales que no podrían ser más divergentes: como lo vemos en la actualidad, los golpes de Estado se desaprueban, pero las rebeliones se apoyan.
“Las personas que se quedan enganchadas en si es un golpe de Estado o una revolución están perdiendo de vista el objetivo”, señaló Naunihal Singh, un reputado politólogo que investiga las transiciones del poder y los golpes de Estado. “La pregunta es qué sucede después”.
Eso ha abierto el espacio a una especie de guerra de términos, en la cual la toma del poder político puede considerarse legítima al etiquetarla como rebelión o ilegítima si la llamamos golpe de Estado.
La construcción de la narrativa “tiene consecuencias” para el tipo de gobierno que viene después, comentó Singh. Hay una tendencia a que transiciones como las de Bolivia sean flexibles e impredecibles. La percepción de legitimidad, o la falta de ella, puede ser decisiva.
‘El golpe de Estado de Schrödinger’
La idea popular de golpe de Estado, que se estableció en la era de la Guerra Fría, aún se caracteriza por tanques en las calles y generales anunciando la toma del poder.
De igual manera, las revoluciones se consideran emotivas, incluso románticas, ya que el pueblo se une para exigir un cambio al unísono hasta que el dirigente no tiene más opción que renunciar deshonrosamente.
A nivel global eso creó expectativas de que cualquier destitución de un dirigente podría encajar en uno de esos dos arquetipos, y los términos golpe de Estado y rebelión se usaban para distinguir las transiciones legítimas de poder de las ilegítimas.
Pero el mundo ha cambiado. La mayor parte de los gobiernos militares han tenido una transición hacia la democracia. Las normas globales, que solían ser tolerantes hacia los golpes de Estado, ahora los consideran un tabú. Sin embargo, en un momento de populismo y autoritarismo crecientes, los líderes electos se sienten cada vez más seguros al desafiar los límites de su poder.
Como resultado, se ha difuminado la frontera entre las rebeliones y los golpes de Estado.
En la actualidad, generalmente los golpes de Estado se producen después de levantamientos masivos que exigen un cambio y los militares describen su intervención como una medida temporal para restaurar la democracia. Y son pocas las rebeliones que tienen éxito sin el apoyo del Ejército, aunque eso solo consista en que los militares se nieguen a respaldar al gobierno.
El politólogo Jay Ulfelder se ha referido a esto como “golpe de Schrödinger”, en honor al físico austriaco Erwin Schrödinger, cuando escribe que esos casos “existen en un estado permanente de ambigüedad y al mismo tiempo es un golpe de Estado y no lo es” sin esperanza de poder encasillar los acontecimientos en una “sola y clara” categoría.
A menudo, los intentos por etiquetarlos llevan a situaciones desconocidas e imposibles de conocer. Cuando los militares anuncian que el presidente debe renunciar, ¿están amenazando con la fuerza o solo dan el mensaje de que no dispersarán a los manifestantes? ¿Importa siquiera esta distinción?
Tal vez Bolivia se ubique con más firmeza en una categoría o la otra, ya sea por acontecimientos nuevos o por el surgimiento de información nueva. Pero lo que hasta ahora se sabe ayuda a ilustrar la manera en que las rebeliones modernas pueden imponer la necesidad de encontrar una categoría nítida.
Al parecer, los acontecimientos de Bolivia encajan en el concepto de revolución callejera: los ciudadanos se volcaron a las calles para exigir la renuncia de un dirigente que se negaba a respetar los límites de su poder, y en algún momento involucró a instituciones fuertes de izquierda y de derecha para lograr que eso sucediera. El gobierno sigue estando en manos de civiles electos que han prometido convocar a nuevas elecciones, y Morales sigue libre.
También, al parecer, encajaban con el concepto que se tiene de un golpe de Estado, ya que el Ejército exhortó al presidente a renunciar y, en efecto, eso sucedió. Morales mismo calificó su destitución como golpe de Estado. Aunque desde entonces ha suavizado su discurso, también ha aceptado el asilo que le ofreció México.
Desde una perspectiva, el pueblo salvó la democracia de manera heroica; desde la otra, un puñado de militares la traicionó de manera cobarde. Ambas consideran el mismo conjunto de hechos.
Las protestas de Venezuela este año dieron lugar a una concepción igualmente confusa en la que hubo mítines masivos para manifestar enojo por la desvergonzada apropiación del poder por parte del gobierno que fueron apoyados por los líderes de la oposición quienes sostenían que una intervención militar era la única salida que quedaba para imponer un cambio.
Áreas grises
Durante la Guerra Fría, en América Latina, las intervenciones del Ejército en política por lo general expulsaban a los dirigentes electos de izquierda e imponían dictaduras de derecha.
No obstante, en las décadas posteriores han cambiado dos cosas. Los dirigentes electos de derecha e izquierda han sido más propensos a desafiar los límites de su mandato y eludir los controles sobre su autoridad. Y los militares se han llegado a considerar árbitros políticos como la última opción y no como actores parciales o posibles gobernantes.
En Ecuador, por ejemplo, en el año 2000, el Ejército intervino a favor de las protestas de los indígenas contra el presidente de derecha y lo obligó a renunciar, y lo hizo nuevamente este año en apoyo a su presidente de centroizquierda.
Para los politólogos, esto parece ser un problema estructural. Los presidentes fuertes, los Ejércitos fuertes, las sociedades polarizadas y las instituciones débiles propician casos como el de Bolivia, donde las disputas se resuelven cada vez más al margen del orden constitucional.
Sin embargo, la terminología de la Guerra Fría sobre los golpes de Estado y las revoluciones exige que esos casos encajen en una descripción clara. Las crisis de América Latina tienden a desarrollarse junto con las divisiones de derecha-izquierda comunes en todo el hemisferio occidental, incluyendo a Estados Unidos, lo que ofrece un incentivo más para identificar a los héroes y a los villanos.
Además, la complejidad inherente al orden democrático latinoamericano, con líderes propensos a acumular poderes extraconstitucionales y a ser destituidos con métodos extraconstitucionales, significa que ambos lados verán muchas pruebas para plantear el derrocamiento de un dirigente como una restauración de la democracia o como su perturbación.
Nuevamente, Bolivia es un buen ejemplo. Los académicos del país sostienen que tanto Morales como el Ejército están en el lado equivocado de la democracia.
Santiago Anria del Dickinson College, en Pensilvania, y Jennifer Cyr de la Universidad de Arizona escribieron en The Washington Post que “el intento de Morales de seguir en el poder reveló sus ‘tentaciones autócratas’: un deseo de hablar y actuar en representación de todo el ‘pueblo’ y de hacer esto para siempre”.
Los académicos culpan a los líderes de la oposición por ayudar a avivar la crisis y reconocen que, al inicio de su mandato, Morales desarrolló el modelo democrático. Pero alegan que ahora “ya casi no respeta los pesos y contrapesos de la Constitución con respecto a la autoridad del presidente”.
Rut Diamint, una politóloga de la Universidad Torcuato Di Tella en Argentina, estuvo de acuerdo con las críticas que se le hacen a Morales, pero añadió que “nada de eso justifica un golpe de Estado”.
Lo denominó un “revés a la democracia en América Latina” y un precedente para que “otros países definan un orden político con el apoyo de las fuerzas armadas”.
Los bolivianos están atrapados en medio de estos actores poderosos, y les dicen que deben elegir un bando para defender la democracia que el otro está agrediendo.
El litigio por la legitimidad
Los debates sobre cómo denominar a la agitación que se vive en Bolivia podrían convertir los complicados acontecimientos en una historia atractiva en términos ideológicos que no encaje del todo, pero estos de todas maneras importan… y posiblemente mucho.
Las percepciones de si fue legítima o no la destitución de Morales, tanto en Bolivia como en el extranjero, podrían tener una participación importante en el debate sobre quién podrá asumir el poder, su capacidad para gobernar y qué tipo de gobierno formará.
“Eso es parte de la importancia de esta inquietud —¿se trata de un golpe de Estado o de una revolución?— ya que esto determinará lo que suceda la próxima semana”, señaló Singh refiriéndose a las objeciones de Morales a la legitimación de cualquier gobierno encabezado por la oposición.
El lunes 11 de noviembre, tanto los expertos en Bolivia como en golpes de Estado coincidían al advertir que había que evitar las caracterizaciones absolutas en blanco y negro y pedían a los analistas y personalidades de redes sociales que se enfocaran en los matices y en la escala de grises.
Unas horas más tarde, algunos de ellos se dieron por vencido. Entre ellos, Anria, el experto en Bolivia quien escribió en Twitter, “¡Los binarios no nos ayudan mucho y sin embargo son tan predominantes!”.
Fuente: https://www.nytimes.com/
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Aparatos de equilibrado: clave para el rendimiento suave y eficiente de las maquinarias.
En el mundo de la avances avanzada, donde la efectividad y la fiabilidad del sistema son de maxima importancia, los equipos de equilibrado desempenan un funcion vital. Estos sistemas adaptados estan desarrollados para calibrar y estabilizar elementos dinamicas, ya sea en herramientas de fabrica, transportes de traslado o incluso en dispositivos de uso diario.
Para los especialistas en soporte de dispositivos y los profesionales, manejar con equipos de ajuste es importante para garantizar el funcionamiento estable y confiable de cualquier dispositivo rotativo. Gracias a estas alternativas innovadoras modernas, es posible reducir notablemente las sacudidas, el zumbido y la tension sobre los sujeciones, mejorando la vida util de componentes costosos.
De igual manera importante es el papel que tienen los aparatos de calibracion en la soporte al comprador. El soporte especializado y el conservacion constante usando estos equipos permiten ofrecer servicios de alta estandar, elevando la satisfaccion de los clientes.
Para los responsables de proyectos, la financiamiento en sistemas de ajuste y sensores puede ser importante para optimizar la productividad y desempeno de sus sistemas. Esto es principalmente importante para los duenos de negocios que gestionan medianas y medianas organizaciones, donde cada detalle es relevante.
Ademas, los aparatos de balanceo tienen una extensa aplicacion en el area de la fiabilidad y el monitoreo de calidad. Habilitan identificar eventuales defectos, reduciendo reparaciones costosas y danos a los dispositivos. Ademas, los informacion obtenidos de estos equipos pueden usarse para perfeccionar procedimientos y mejorar la presencia en sistemas de busqueda.
Las areas de aplicacion de los dispositivos de equilibrado incluyen multiples areas, desde la elaboracion de bicicletas hasta el supervision ambiental. No influye si se trata de extensas elaboraciones industriales o reducidos establecimientos hogarenos, los aparatos de ajuste son esenciales para asegurar un funcionamiento optimo y libre de paradas.
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WebSite: https://repaircddvd.com
WebSite: https://repaircddvd.com